JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
Integrity Research Journals
ISSN: 2536-7099
Model: Open Access/Peer Reviewed
DOI: 10.31248/JASVM
Start Year: 2016
Email: jasvm@integrityresjournals.org
A review of zoonotic pathogens of donkeys (Equus asinus)
https://doi.org/10.31248/JASVM2019.175 | Article Number: FF9130EC1 | Vol.5 (1) - February 2020
Received Date: 03 December 2019 | Accepted Date: 14 January 2020 | Published Date: 28 February 2020
Authors: Wyckliff Ngetich* and Evalyne Chepkirui
Keywords: bacteria, fungi, parasites, donkeys, viruses, zoonoses.
: Donkeys belong to the equine family that are generally considered as the beast of burden and have helped mankind from way back in the ancient Greek history. They are considered resilient species especially in semi-arid areas where infrastructure is poor and other animals do not do well. They are used for various functions including farm tillage, transportation of farm products, water, firewood and recreational activities that contribute immensely to agricultural economy and availability of resources to families especially those who are poverty stricken. However, despite the significant contribution of donkeys in rural agriculture system, they have been subjected to several challenges including poor husbandry practices, overworking/overloading, limited veterinary care and general negative attitudes toward this species. Since these animals are in close contact with humans, any zoonotic disease occurrence could pose a health risk. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to review the documented zoonotic diseases affecting donkeys and describe the possible ways on how such diseases can be transmitted to other animals and humans. From this review, most studies have been carried on parasitic, bacterial and viral diseases affecting donkeys with less emphasis on other zoonoses. Hydatidosis and toxoplasma infections are the two conditions where their zoonotic potentials have been studied more compared to the rest parasitic zoonoses. Whereas for bacterial zoonoses, brucellosis, leptospirosis and salmonellosis have been researched more in equine than other potential bacterial pathogens. However, rabies and Equine encephalomyelitis viral infection have been reported more in donkeys than any other viral zoonoses. Africa, Europe and Asia are the three continents with the highest number of publications on donkey zoonoses. Therefore, proper understanding of equine pathogens with potential to cause infections in humans is necessary so that the communities who keep these animals are educated on the prevention and control measures to reduce possible human infections.
| Abdalla, M. A., Abdalla, S. H., & Elzaki R. (2010). Prevalence of Brucella abortus antibodies in donkeys in Gaderef State of Eastern Sudan. Tropentag, September 14-16, Zurich, Pp. 412-413. | ||||
| Abdalla, W. G., Suliman, E. A., Abdo El Gabbar, N. A., & Areporton. (2005). A report on Trichophyton verrucosum in donkeys in the Sudan. Sudan Journal Veterinary Research, 20, 83-85. | ||||
| Adlhoch, C., Avellon, A., Baylis, S. A., Ciccaglione, A. R., Couturier, E., de Sousa, R., Epštein, J., Ethelberg, S., Faber, M., Fehér, Á., & Ijaz, S. (2016). Hepatitis E virus: assessment of the epidemiological situation in humans in Europe, 2014/15. Journal of Clinical Virology, 82, 9-16. Crossref |
||||
| Alam, J., Singh, B. R., Hansda, D., Singh, V. P., & Verma, J. C. (2009). Evaluation of aroA deletion mutant of Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Abortusequi for its vaccine candidate potential. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 47, 871-879. | ||||
| Atawalna J., Emikpe, B. O., Sallah, E. K., Shaibu, W., & Folitse R. D. (2015). The health problems, gastrointestinal and blood parasites commonly associated with donkeys in the upper east Region of Ghana. African Journal of Biomedical Research, 18(1), 37-41. | ||||
| Balkaya, I., & Simsek, S. (2011). A serological survey of cystic echinococcosis in equids in east of Turkey. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 6(4), 46-50. | ||||
| Banyard, A. C., Horton, D. L., Freuling, C., Müller, T., & Fooks, A. R. (2013). Control and prevention of canine rabies: the need for building laboratory-based surveillance capacity. Antiviral Research, 98(3), 357-364. Crossref |
||||
| Bedada, H., & Dagnachew, S. (2012). Study on the prevalence of donkey trypanosomosis in Awi zone northwest Ethiopia. Ethiopian Veterinary Journal, 16(2), 65-76. Crossref |
||||
| Benchohra, M. (2016). Veterinary and Medical Management of an Animal Rabies Outbreak in West Algeria. World Journal of Medical Sciences, 13 (3), 176-178. | ||||
| Berihu, H., & Toffik, K. (2014). Study on prevalence and economic significance of bovine hydatidosis in Bako municipal abattoir, West Shoa zone, Oromiya regional state. Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, 5(5), 1000197. | ||||
| Beyer, W., & Turnbull, P. C. B. (2009). Anthrax in animals. Molecular aspects of medicine, 30(6), 481-489. Crossref |
||||
| Biffa, D., & Woldemeskel, M. (2006). Causes and factors associated with occurrence of external injuries in working equines in Ethiopia. International Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine, 4(1), 1-7. | ||||
| Bossi, P., Tegnell, A., Baka, A., Van Loock, F., Hendriks, J., Werner, A., Maidhof, H., & Gouvras, G. (2004). Bichat guidelines for the clinical management of glanders and melioidosis and bioterrorism-related glanders and melioidosis. Euro Surveill, 9(12), E17-E18. Crossref |
||||
| Boyle, A. G., Rankin, S. C., Duffee, L. A., & Morris, D. (2017). Prevalence of Methicillin‐Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Equine nasopharyngeal and guttural pouch wash samples. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 31(5), 1551-1555. Crossref |
||||
| Bryan, J., den Boon, P., McGuirk, J., Madigan, G., Skuce, R., & Fogarty, U. (2018). Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis infection in a donkey. Equine Veterinary Education, 30(4), 172-176. Crossref |
||||
| Budke, C. M., Deplazes, P., & Torgerson, P. R. (2006). Global socioeconomic impact of cystic echinococcosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 296-303. Crossref |
||||
| Cadioli, F. A., Marques, L. C., Machado, R. Z., Alessi, A. C., Aquino, L. P. C. T., & Barnabé, P. A. (2006). Experimental Trypanosoma evansi infection in donkeys: hematological, biochemical and histopathological changes. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, 58(5), 749-756. Crossref |
||||
| CFSPH Technical Fact Sheets (2019). Equine Encephalomyelitis. Retrieved July 2019 from http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo. | ||||
| Dargantes, A. P., Reid, S. A., & Copeman, D. B. (2001). Prevalence and incidence of Trypanosomosis in horses and donkeys in the Gambia. Veterinary Parasitology, 101(2), 101-114. Crossref |
||||
| de Oliveira, E., de Albuquerque, P. P. F., de Souza Neto, O. L., Faria, E. B., Júnior, J. W. P., & Mota, R. A. (2013). Occurrence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in mules and donkeys in the northeast of Brazil. Journal of Parasitology, 99(2), 343-346. Crossref |
||||
| Dehkordi, F. S., Haghighi Borujeni, M. R., Rahimi, E., & Abdizadeh, R. (2013). Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in raw caprine, ovine, buffalo, bovine, and camel milk using cell cultivation, cat bioassay, capture ELISA, and PCR methods in Iran. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 10(2), 120-125. Crossref |
||||
| Dierckins, M. S., Sherman, D. M., & Gendron-Fitzpatrick, A. (1990). Probable paratuberculosis in a Sicilian ass. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 196(3), 459-461. | ||||
| Dubey, J. P. (2010). Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans. 2nd edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton. | ||||
| Duval, B. D., Elrod, M. G., Gee, J. E., Chantratita, N., Tandhavanant, S., Limmathurotsakul, D., & Hoffmaster, A. R. (2014). Evaluation of a latex agglutination assay for the identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 90(6), 1043-1046. Crossref |
||||
| Ehizibolo, D. O., Gusi, A. M., Ehizibolo, P. O., & Ocholi, R. A. (2011). Serologic prevalence of brucellosis in horse stables in two northern states of Nigeria. Journal of Equine Science, 22(1), 17-19. Crossref |
||||
| Elschner, M. C., Scholz, H. C., Melzer, F., Saqib, M., Marten, P., Rassbach, A., Dietzsch, M., Schmoock, G., de Assis Santana, V. L., de Souza, M. M., & Wernery, R. (2011). Use of a Western blot technique for the serodiagnosis of glanders. BMC Veterinary Research, 7, Article Number 4. Crossref |
||||
| Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2007). State of food and agriculture. FAO Agriculture Series No. 38. | ||||
| García‐Bocanegra, I., Rivero, A., Caballero‐Gómez, J., López‐López, P., Cano‐Terriza, D., Frías, M., Jiménez‐Ruiz, S., Risalde, M. A., Gómez‐Villamandos, J. C., & Rivero‐Juarez, A. (2019). Hepatitis E virus infection in equines in Spain. Transboundary and emerging diseases, 66(1), 66-71. Crossref |
||||
| García-Martos, P., Gené, J., Solé, M., Mira, J., Ruíz-Henestrosa, R., & Guarro, J. (1999). Case of Onychomycosis Caused byMicrosporum racemosum. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 37(1), 258-260. Crossref |
||||
| Gilad, J., Schwartz, D., & Amsalem, Y. (2007). Clinical features and laboratory diagnosis of infection with the potential bioterrorism agents Burkholderia mallei and Burkholderia pseudomallei. International journal of Biomedical Science, 3(3), 144-152. | ||||
| Goel, A. K. (2015). Anthrax: a disease of biowarfare and public health importance. World Journal of Clinical Cases: WJCC, 3(1), 20-33. Crossref |
||||
| Grevemeyer, B., Vandenplas, M., Beigel, B., Cho, E., Willingham, A., & Verma, A. (2017). Detection of Leptospiral DNA in the urine of donkeys on the Caribbean Island of Saint Kitts. Veterinary sciences, 4(1), 5p. Crossref |
||||
| Gutema, D. F., Duguma, B. E., & Dinka, A. G. (2009). Isolation and identification of aerobic bacterial flora from the upper respiratory tract of donkeys in central Ethiopia. International Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine, 7(4), 181-189. | ||||
| Hajikolaei, M. R. H., Gorbanpour, M., Haidari, M. M., & Abdollapour, G. (2005). Comparison of leptospiral infection in the horse and donkey. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Puławy, 49, 175-178. | ||||
| IOWA (2017). Equine Encephalitis; Eastern Equine Encephalitis, Western Equine Encephalitis, Venenzuela Equine Encephalitis. The Centre for Food security and Public Health. | ||||
| Jajere, S. M., Jallailudeen, R. L., Bello A. M., Wakil Y., Turaki U. A., & Waziri I. (2016). Risk factors associated with the occurrence of Gastrointestinal helminths among Indigenous donkeys (Equus asinus) in Northeastern Nigeria. Hindawi Publishing Corporation Scientifica, Volume 2016, Article ID 3735210, 7 pages. Crossref |
||||
| Kamonzo, J. K., Kanui, T. I., & Oduma, J. A. (2016). The use of physical animal welfare indicators: a case for working donkeys in rural and urban/peri-urban areas of Mwingi central sub county-Kitui county-Kenya. International Journal of Education and Research, 4(12), 20p. | ||||
| Keck, N., Dutruel, H., Smyej, F., Nodet, M., & Boschiroli, M. L. (2010). Tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis in a Camargue horse. Vet Record, 166, 499-500 Crossref |
||||
| Khaki, P., Mosavari, N., Khajeh, N. S., Emam, M., Ahouran, M., Hashemi, S., Taheri, M. M., Jahanpeyma, D., & Nikkhah, S. (2012). Glanders outbreak at Tehran Zoo, Iran. Iranian Journal of Microbiology, 4(1), 3-7. | ||||
| Kuroda, T., Kinoshita, Y., Niwa, H., Shinzaki, Y., Tamura, N., Hobo, S., & Kuwano, A. (2016). Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonisation and infection in Thoroughbred racehorses and veterinarians in Japan. Veterinary Record, 178(19), 473. Crossref |
||||
| Lembo, T., Hampson, K., Kaare, M. T., Ernest, E., Knobel, D., Kazwala, R. R., Haydon, D. T., & Cleaveland, S. (2010). The feasibility of canine rabies elimination in Africa: dispelling doubts with data. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 4(2), e626. Crossref |
||||
| Machacova, T., Bartova, E., Di Loria, A., Sedlak, K., Mariani, U., Fusco, G., Fulgione, D., Veneziano, V., & Dubey, J. P. (2013). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in donkeys (Equus asinus) in Italy. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 76(2), 265-267. Crossref |
||||
| Mehmet, K., Sibel, G., Orhan, Y., Nuri, M., Sibel, Y., Sibel, H., Oya, B., & Metin, G. (2017). Serological investigation of West Nile virus infection in domestic horses and donkeys in Turkey. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 37(1), 51-54. | ||||
| Mrema, M. (2004). An economic analysis of the utilization of donkeys in Botswana: The past and the future. In: Fielding, D. and Starkey, P. (eds.), Donkeys, people and development. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA), Wageningen, the Netherlands. p. 164. | ||||
| Muoria, P. K., Muruthi, P., Kariuki, W. K., Hassan, B. A., Mijele, D., & Oguge, N. O. (2007). Anthrax outbreak among Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi) in Samburu, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 45(4), 483-489. Crossref |
||||
| Nardoni, S., Mugnaini, L., Papini, R., Fiaschi, M., & Mancianti, F. (2013). Canine and feline dermatophytosis due to Microsporum gypseum: a retrospective study of clinical data and therapy outcome with griseofulvin. Journal de Mycologie Medicale, 23(3), 164-167. Crossref |
||||
| Ngetich, W. (2019). Anthrax review: A disease of animals and humans. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Bioresearch, 4(1), 123-134. | ||||
| Niwa, H., Hobo, S., Kinoshita, Y., Muranaka, M., Ochi, A., Ueno, T., Oku, K., Hariu, K., & Katayama, Y. (2016). Aneurysm of the cranial mesenteric artery as a site of carriage of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Abortusequi in the horse. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 28(4), 440-444. Crossref |
||||
| Ocholi, R. A., Bertu, W. J., Kwaga, J. K. P., Ajogi, I., Bale, J. O. & Okpara J. (2004b). Carpal bursitis associated with Brucella abortus in horses in Nigeria. Veterinary Records, 155(18), 566-567. Crossref |
||||
| Ocholi, R. A., Kwaga, J. K., P. Ajogi, I. & Bale, J. O. O. (2004a). Phenotypic characterization of Brucella strains isolated from livestock in Nigeria. Veterinary Microbiology, 103(2), 47-53. Crossref |
||||
| OIE Terrestrial Manual (2013). Infringements to the current legislation. | ||||
| Onyiche, T. E., Okute, T. O., Oseni, O. S., Okoro, D. O., Biu, A. A., & Mbaya, A. W. (2018). Parasitic and zoonotic meningoencephalitis in humans and equids: Current knowledge and the role of Halicephalobus gingivalis. Parasite Epidemiology and Control, 3(1), 36-42. Crossref |
||||
| Pavlik, I., Jahn, P., Dvorska, L., Bartos, M., Novotny, L., & Halouzka, R. (2004). Mycobacterial infections in horses: A review of the literature. Veterinarni Medicina, 49, 427-440. Crossref |
||||
| Pearson, R. A., & Ouassat, M. (2000). A guide to body condition scoring and live weight estimation of donkeys. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 21. | ||||
| Pinchbeck, G. L., Morrison, L. J., Tait, A., Langford, J., Meehan, L., Jallow, S., Jallow, J., Jallow, A., & Christley, R. M. (2008). Trypanosomosis in The Gambia: Prevalence in working horses and donkeys detected by whole genome amplification and PCR, and evidence for interactions between trypanosome species. BMC Veterinary Research, 4, Article number: 7. Crossref |
||||
| Rawlins, J., Portanova, A., Zuckerman, I., Loftis, A., Ceccato, P., Willingham, A. L., Verma, Rivero-Juarez A., A., Frias, M., Martinez-Peinado, A., Risalde, M. A., Rodríguez- Cano, D., Camacho, A., & Rivero, A. (2017). Familial hepatitis E outbreak linked to wild boar meat consumption. Zoonoses and Public Health. 64(7), 561-565. Crossref |
||||
| Rezaei-Matehkolaei, A., Rafiei, A., Makimura, K., Gräser, Y., Gharghani, M., & Sadeghi-Nejad, B. (2016). Epidemiological aspects of dermatophytosis in Khuzestan, southwestern Iran, an update. Mycopathologia, 181(7-8), 547-553. Crossref |
||||
| Rivero‐Juarez, A., Cuenca‐Lopez, F., Martinez‐Peinado, A., Camacho, A., Real, L. M., Frias, M., Gordon, A., Cantisán, S., Torre‐Cisneros, J., Pineda, J.A., & Rivero, A. (2017). Rural habitat as risk factor for hepatitis E virus seroconversion in HIV‐infected patients: A prospective longitudinal study. Zoonoses and public health, 64(7), e60-e64. Crossref |
||||
| Sadiq, M. A., Tijjani, A. N., Auwal, M. S., Mustapha, A. R., Tijjani, A. O., Gulani, I., & Mohammed, A. (2013). Prevalence of Brucella antibodies in donkeys (Equus asinus) in Borno and Yobe states, Nigeria. Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 11(1), 7-12. Crossref |
||||
| Safirullah, Anwar, K., Abdur-Raziq, Shahid, M., Raza, S., Khan, N., & Amin, Y. (2014). Epidemiological Study of Brucellosis in Equines of District Peshawar Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 3(2), 795-800. | ||||
| Sells, P. D., Pinchbeck, G., Mezzane, H., Ibourki, J., & Crane, M. (2010). Pack wounds of donkeys and mules in the Northern High Atlas and lowlands of Morocco. Equine Veterinary Journal, 42(3), 219-226. Crossref |
||||
| Spahr, C., Knauf-Witzens, T., Vahlenkamp, T., Ulrich, R. G., & Johne, R. (2018). Hepatitis E virus and related viruses in wild, domestic and zoo animals: A review. Zoonoses and Public Health, 65(1) 11-29. Crossref |
||||
| Swerczek, T. W. (1991). The most common viral causes of equine abortion. Veterinary Medicine, 86, 1205-1208. | ||||
| Tel, O. Y., Arserim, N. B., & Keskin, O. (2011). Seroprevalence of Equine brucellosis in Southeast Turkey. YYU Veterner Dergisi, 22(3), 181-183. | ||||
| van Duijkeren, E., Moleman, M., van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. S., Multem, J., Troelstra, A., Fluit, A. C., Van Wamel, W. J. B., Houwers, D. J., De Neeling, A. J., & Wagenaar, J. A. (2010). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in horses and horse personnel: an investigation of several outbreaks. Veterinary Microbiology, 141(1-2), 96-102. Crossref |
||||
| Verma, A., Stevenson, B., & Adler, B. (2013). Leptospirosis in horses. Veterinary Microbiology, 167(1-2), 61-66. Crossref |
||||
| Wang, H., Liu, K. J., Sun, Y. H., Cui, L. Y., Meng, X., Jiang, G. M., Zhao, F. W., & Li, J. J. (2019). Abortion in donkeys associated with Salmonella abortus equi infection. Equine Veterinary Journal, 51(6), 756-759. Crossref |
||||
| Wyckliff, N., & Chepkirui, E. (2017). Prevalence and associated economic losses of bovine hydatidosis in selected abattoirs in Kericho, Kenya-an analysis of abattoir data. International Journal of Veterinary Science, 6(3), 163-167. | ||||
| Yue, D. M., Ma, J. G., Li, F. C., Hou, J. L., Zheng, W. B., Zhao, Q., Zhang, X. X., & Zhu, X. Q. (2017). Occurrence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in donkeys (Equus asinus) in China: a public health concern. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8, Article 565. Crossref |
||||
| Zhao, W., Yu, S., Yang, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Wang, R., Zhang, W., Yang, F., & Liu, A. (2016). Genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi (Microsporidia) isolated from various birds in China. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 40, 151-154. Crossref |
||||
Copyright © 2025 Integrity Research Journals. All rights reserved.